Geographical characteristics of the timberline in the Carpathians

Czajka, Barbara; Łajczak, Adam; Kaczka, Ryszard J.

doi:0016-7282

- ris
- BibTeX
- EndNote
- Csv

Geographical characteristics of the timberline in the Carpathians Czajka, BarbaraŁajczak, AdamKaczka, Ryszard J.

Object structure

Geographical characteristics of the timberline in the Carpathians

Geographia Polonica Vol. 88 No. 2 (2015)

Czajka, Barbara ; Łajczak, Adam ; Kaczka, Ryszard J.

górna granica lasu ; czynniki globalne ; wpływ szerokości geograficznej ; Karpaty

The pattern of timberline distribution on mountain ranges world-wide is related to global factors. The basic factor is temperature and the amount of radiation, which falls with increasing distance from the equator. Additionally, this basic relationship is overlaid by the specific features of the type of climate on the massif (degree of continentality or oceanity) and the mass-elevation effect. In the Carpathians, the mass elevation effectseems to have bigger impact on the location of timberline (R2 = 0.71, p = 0.00) than their latitudinal location (R2 = 0.56, p = 0.00). The timberline altitude changes by 70 m a.s.l. (±20 m) with each degree of latitude. The influenceof the type of the climate is complex and it is not clearly visible due to past and recent human impact.

1. ARNO S.F., 1966. Interpreting the timberline: An aid to help park naturalists to acquaint with the subalpine-alpine ecotone of Western North America. Missoula, MT: University of Montana [MA thesis].
2. Arno S., 1984. Timberline: Mountain and Arctic Forest Frontiers. Seattle: The Mountaineers.
3. Balon J., German K., Kozak J., Malara H., WIDACKI W., ZIAJA W., 1995. Regiony fizycznogeograficzne [in:] J. Warszyńska (ed.), Karpaty Polskie: Przyroda, człowiek i jego działalność, Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, pp. 117-130.
4. BARRY R.G., 1994. Past and potential future changesin mountain environments: A review [in:] M. Beniston(ed.), Mountain environments in changing climates. London-New York: Routledge Publishing Company, pp. 3-33
http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203424957_chapter_1 -
5. BOGAERT R.V., HANECA K., HOOGESTEGER J., JONASSON Ch., DAPPER De M., CALLAGHAN V., 2011. A century of tree line changes in sub-Arctic Sweden shows local and regional variability and only a minor influence of 20th century climate warming. Journal of Biogeography, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 907-921.
6. BROCKMANN-JEROSCH H., 1919. Baumgrenze und Klimacharakter. Beiträge zur geobotanischen Landesaufnahme, 6, Zürich: Rascher.
7. Caccianiga M., Andreis C., Armiraglio S., LEONELLI G., PELFINI M., SALA D., 2008. Climate continentality and treeline species distribution in the Alps. Plant Biosystems, vol. 142, no. 1, pp. 66-78.
8. CASE B.S., DUNCAN R.P., 2014. A novel framework for disentangling the scale-dependent influences of abiotic factors on alpine treeline position. Ecography, vol. 37, no. 9, pp. 838-851.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ecog.00280 -
9. Cogbill C.V., White P.S., 1991. The latitude-elevation relationship for spruce-fir forest and treeline along the Appalachian mountain chain. Vegetatio, vol. 94, no. 2, pp. 153-175.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00032629 -
10. CZAJKA B., KACZKA R.J., ŁAJCZAK A., 2015a. The dynamics of the timberline ecotone on the asymmetric ridge of the Babia Góra Massif, Western Carpathians. Geographia Polonica, vol. 88, no. 2, pp. 85-102.
11. Czajka B., Kaczka R.J., Łajczak A., 2015b. Timberline in the Carpathians: An overview. Geographia Polonica, vol. 88, no. 2, pp. 7-34.
12. Dalen L., Hofgaard A., 2005. Differential regional tree line dynamics in the Scandes Mountains. Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 284-296.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1657/1523-0430(2005)037[0284:DRTDIT]2.0.CO;2 -
13. DÄNIKER A., 1923. Biologische Studien uber Baumund Waldgrenze, insbesondere uber die klimatischen Ursachen und deren Zusammenhange. Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich, 68, Zürich: Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
14. DAUBENMIRE R., 1954. Alpine timberlines in the Americas and their interpretation. Butler University Botanical Studies, vol. 11, art. 14, pp. 119-136.
15. De Quervain A., 1904. Die Hebung der atmosphä-rischen Isothermen in den Schweizer Alpen und ihre Beziehung zu den Höhengrenzen. Gerlands Beiträge zur Geophysik, 6, pp. 481-533.
16. Dolecki L., 1984. Karły świerkowe na połoninach Bieszczadów Zachodnich. Chrońmy Przyrodę Ojczystą, 3, pp.13-20.
17. Fang H., Baiping Z., Yonghui Y., Yunhai Z., Yu P., 2011. Mass elevation effect and its contribution to the altitude of snowline in the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 207-212.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1657/1938-4246-43.2.207 -
18. Fang H., Yonghui Y., Shibao D., Chun W., RANHAO S., JUAN X., BAIPING Z., 2012. Mass elevation effect and its forcing on timberline altitude. Journal of Geographical Sciences, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 609-616.
19. FEKETE L., BLATTNY T., 1913-1914. Die Verbreitung der forstlich wichtigsten Bäume und Sträucher im Ungarischen Staate. 1 Bd., Selmecbanya.
20. FLIRI F., 1975. Das Klima der Alpen im Raum von Tirol: Monographien zur Landeskunde Tirols. Folge 1 Innsbruck-Munich: Universtitätsverlag Wagner,
21. Furlan D., 1977. The climate of Southeast Europe [in:] C.C. Wallen (ed.), Climates of central and southern Europe. Amsterdam-Oxford-New York: Elsevier, pp. 185-235.
22. GARBARINO M., LINGUA E., WEISBERG P.J., BOTTERO A., MELONI F., MOTTA R., 2013. Land-use history and topographic gradients as driving factors of subalpine Larix decidua forests. Landscape ecology, vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 805-817.
23. Gellrich M., Baur P., Koch B., Zimmermann N.E., 2007. Agricultural land abandonment and natural forest re-growth in the Swiss mountains: A spatially explicit economic analysis. Agricultural Ecosystems Environments, vol. 118, no. 1-4, pp. 93-108.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2006.05.001 -
24. GERARD F., BUGÁR G., GREGOR M., HALADA L., HAZEU G., HUITI H., KÖHLER R., KOLÁR J., LUQUE S., MALCHER C., OLSCHOFSKY K., PETIT S., PINO J., SMITH G., THOMSON A., WACHOWICZ M., BEZÁK P., BOLTIZIAR M., DEBADTS E., HALABUK A., MANCHESTER S., MOJSES M., PETROVIC F., RODA F., ROSCHER M., TUOMINEN S., ZIESE H., 2006. Linking pan-European land cover change to pressures on biodiversity – Biopress final report 1st January 2003 - 31st December 2005, sections 5 and 6. NERC/Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/500891/1/060228finalr eport.pdf [5 March 2015].
25. Golubec M. A., 1978. El'niki Ukrainskih Karpat. Kiev: Naukova Dumka.
26. Grace J., 1989. Tree lines. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series B, 324, pp. 233-245
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1989.0046 -
27. GRIFFITHS P., KUEMMERLE T., BAUMANN M., RADELOFF V.C., ABRUDAN I.V., LIESKOVSKY J., MUNTEANU C., OSTAPOWICZ K., HOSTERT P., 2014. Forest disturbances, forest recovery, and changes in forest types across the Carpathian ecoregion from 1985 to 2010 based on Landsat image composites. Remote Sensing of Environment, 151, pp. 72-88.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2013.04.022 -
28. GUZIK M., 2008. Analiza wpływu czynników naturalnych i antropogenicznych na kształtowanie się zasięgu lasu i kosodrzewiny w Tatrach. Kraków: Uniwersytet Rolniczy im. Hugona Kołłątaja. Wydział Leśny. Katedra Botaniki Leśnej i Ochrony Przyrody [PhD thesis].
29. Hermes K., 1955. Die Lage der oberen Waldgrenze in den Gebirgen der Erde und ihr Abstand zur Schneegrenze (Kolner geographische Arbeiten) . Kö ln: Selbstverlag des Geographischen Instituts der Universität.
30. Hess M., 1965. Piętra klimatyczne w polskich Karpatach Zachodnich. Zeszyty Naukowe UJ. Prace Geograficzne, 11, Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński.
31. Holtmeier F.K., 1974. Geooekologische Beobachtungen und Studien an der subarktischen und alpinen Waldgrenze in vergleichender Sicht. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner.
32. Holtmeier F-H., Broll G., 2005. Sensitivity and response of northern hemisphere altitudinal and polar treelines to environmental change at landscape and local scales. Global Ecology and Biogeography, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 395-410
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-822X.2005.00168.x -38. Jakób M.L., 1937. Uwagi nad górną granicą lasu w Gorganach Centralnych. Sylwan, 2-3, pp. 89-101.
33. Holtmeier F.H., 2009. Mountain timberlines: Ecology, patchiness, and dynamics. Advances in Global Change Research, 36, Dordrecht: Springer.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9705-8 -
34. HROMADKA J., 1956. Nové orografické třídění ČSR. Sborník Československé společnosti zeměpisné, 61, 161-180.
35. Huzui A.E., Calin I., Patru-Stupariu I., 2012. Spatial pattern analyses of landscape using multitemporal data sources [in:] I. Pătru-Stupariu, M. Pătroescu, C.I. Iojă, L. Rozylowicz (eds.), Procedia Environmental Sciences: 2011 International Conference of Environment-Landscape-European Identity: Volume 14, pp. 98-110.
36. Imhof E., 1900. Die Waldgrenze in der Schweiz. Gerland's Beitrage zur Geophysik, vol. 4, no. 3, Leipzig: Engelmann, pp. 241-330.
37. IRLAND L.C., KREMENETSKA E., 2009. Practical economics of forest ecosystem management: The case of the Ukrainian Carpathians [in:] S.W.S. Keeton (ed.), Ecological economics and sustainable forest management: Developing a transdisciplinary approach for the Carpathian Mountains, Lvov: Ukrainian National Forestry University Press, pp. 180-200.
38. Jakób M.L., 1937. Uwagi nad górną granicą lasu w Gorganach Centralnych. Sylwan, 2-3, pp. 89-101.
39. Jennes J., 2006. opographic Position Index (tpi_jen. avx) extension for ArcView 3. x, v. 1.3 a. Jenness Enterprises, http://www.jennessent.com/arcview/tpi.htm [5 March 2015].
40. Jobbágy E.G., Jackson R.B., 2000. Global controls of forest line elevation in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Global Ecology and Biogeography, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 253-268.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00162.x -
41. Kaczmarczyk M., 2011. Analiza występowania i kondycji świerka pospolitego w Bieszczadach Wysokich. Sosnowiec: Wydział Nauk o Ziemi. Uniwersytet Śląski [MA thesis].
42. Kasthofer K., 1822. Bemerkungen auf einer Alpenreise über den Susten, Gotthard, Bernhardin,und über die Oberalp, Furka und Grimsel. Aarau.
43. Klimaszewski M. (ed.), 1972. Geomorfologia Polski. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.
44. Knorn J., Kuemmerle T., Radeloff V.C., Szabo A., Mindrescu M., Keeton W.S., Abrudan I.V., Griffiths P., Gancz V., Hostert P., 2012. Forest restitution and protected area effectiveness in post-socialist Romania. Biological Conservation, vol. 146, no. 1, pp. 204-212.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.12.020 -
45. Kolìsuk V.G., 1958. Suèasna verhnâ mera lìsu v Ukraïns’kih. Kiev: AN URSR.
46. Komendar V.I., Fiodor S.S., 1987. Study of the restoration of the upper forest limit in the Carpathians Ukrainian SSR USSR. Tiscia, 22, pp. 55-60.
47. KONDRACKi J., 1978. Karpaty. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne.
48. KÖRNER Ch., 1998. A re-assessment of high elevation treeline positions and their explanation. Oecologia, vol. 115, no. 4, pp. 445-459.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s004420050540 -
49. Książkiewicz M., 1965. Zarys geologii Polski. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Geologiczne.
50. Kucharzyk S., 1999. Wpływ mrozów w zimie 1928/ 1929 na rozwój drzewostanów w Bieszczadach i w Bieszczadzkim Parku Narodowym. Sylwan, vol. 143, no. 8, pp. 25-47.
51. Kucharzyk S., 2006. Ekologiczne znaczenie drzewostanów w strefie górnej granicy lasu w Karpatach Wschodnich i ich wrażliwość na zmiany antropogeniczne. Roczniki Bieszczadzkie, 14, pp. 15-43.
52. Kucharzyk S., Augustyn M., 2008. Dynamika górnej granicy lasu w Bieszczadach Zachodnich – zmiany w ciągu półtora wieku. Studia Naturae, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 133-156.
53. KUCSICSA G., 2011. Considerations on the timberline in the Rodna Mountains National Park. Revue Roumaine de Géographie/ Romanian Journal of Geography, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 57-61.
54. Kuemmerle T., Chaskovskyy O., Knorn J., Radeloff V.C., Kruhlov I., Keeton W., Hostert P., 2009. Forest cover change and illegal logging in the Ukrainian Carpathians in the transition period from 1988 to 2007. Remote Sensing of Environment, vol. 113, no. 6, pp. 1194-1207.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2009.02.006 -
55. Kulakowski D., Bebi P., Rixen C., 2011. The interacting effects of land use change, climate change and suppression of natural disturbances on landscape forest structure in the Swiss Alps. Oikos, vol. 120, no. 2, pp. 216-225.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18726.x -
56. Kullman L., 1991. Cataclysmic response to recent cooling of a natural boreal pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) forest in northern Sweden. New Phytologist, vol. 117, no. 2, pp. 351-360.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1991.tb04917.x -
57. Kullman L., 2001. 20th century warming and treelimit rise in the southern Scandes of Sweden. Ambio, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 72-80.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-30.2.72 -
58. Kullman L., Oberg L., 2009. Post-Little Ice Age tree line rise and climate warming in the Swedish Scandes: A landscape ecological perspective. Journal of Ecology, vol. 97, no. 3, pp. 415-429.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2009.01488.x -
59. LEUSCHNER C., 1996. Timberline and alpine vegetation on the tropical and warm-temperate oceanic islands of the world: Elevation, structure and floristics. Vegetation, vol. 123, no. 2, pp. 193-206.
60. Malyshev L., 1993. Levels of the upper forest boundary in Northern Asia. Vegetatio, vol. 109, no. 2, pp. 175-186.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00044749 -
61. Mazur E., Luknis M., 1978. Regionálne geomorfologické členenie SSR. Geografický Časopis, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 101-125.
62. Miehe G., Miehe S., 2000. Comparative high mountain research on the treeline ecotone under human impact. Carl Troll's "Asymmetrical Zonation of the Humid Vegetation Types of the World" of 1948 Reconsidered. Erdkunde, vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 34-50.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3112/erdkunde.2000.01.03 -
63. Mihailescu V., 1963. Carpatii Sud-Estici de teritoriul, R.P. Romine. Studiu de geografie fizica cu privire speciala la relief. Cluj: Editura stiintifica.
64. Mihai B., Savulescu I., Sandric I., 2007. Change detection analysis (1986–2002) of vegetation cover in Romania. A study of alpine, subalpine, and forest landscapes in the Iezer Mountains, Southern Carpathians. Mountain Research and Development, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 250-258.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1659/mred.0645 -
65. Munteanu C., Kuemmerle T., Boltiziar M., Butsic V., Gimmi U., Halada L., Kaim D., Király G., Konkoly-Gyuró E., Kozak J., Lieskovsky J., MOJSES M., MÜLLER D.,OSTAFIN K., OSTAPOWICZ K., SHANDRA O., STYCH P., WALKER S., RADELOFF V.C., 2014. Forest and agricultural land change in the Carpathian region - A meta-analysis of long-term patterns and drivers of change. Land Use Policy, 38, pp. 685-697.
66. Niedźwiedź T., 2012. Climate [in:] D. Lóczy, M. Stankoviansky, A. Kotarba (eds.), Recent Landform Evolution. The Carpatho-Balkan-Dinaric Region, Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 19-30.
67. Niedźwiedź T., Łupikasza E., Pińskwar I., KUNDZEWICZ Z.W., STOFFEL M., MAŁARZEWSKI Ł., 2014. Variability of high rainfalls and related synoptic situations causing heavy floods at the northern foothills of the Tatra Mountains. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, vol. 119, no. 1-2, pp. 273-284.
68. Olah B., Boltiziar M., 2009. Land use changes within the Slovak biosphere reserves' zones. Ekológia, vol. 28, no. 2, pp.127-142.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4149/ekol_2009_02_127 -
69. Ostafin K., 2009. Zmiany granicy rolno-leśnej w środkowej części Beskidu Średniego od połowy XIX wieku do 2005 roku. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego.
70. Ozenda P., 1985. La végétation de la chaıne Alpine dans l'espace montagnard Européen. Paris: Masson.
71. Pache G., Michalet R., Aime S., 1996. A seasonal application of the Gams (1932) method, modified Michalet (1991): The example of the distribution of some important forest species in the Alps. Dissertationes Botanicae, 258, pp. 31-54.
72. Pecher C., Tasser E. TAPPEINER U., 2011. Definition of the potential treeline in the European Alps and its benefit for sustainability monitoring. Ecological Indicators vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 438-447.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2010.06.015 -
73. Piękoś-Mirkowa H., Mirek Z., 1996. Zbiorowiska roślinne [in:] Z. Mirek (ed.), Przyroda Tatrzańskiego Parku Narodowego, Kraków-Zakopane: Tatrzański Park Narodowy, pp. 237-274.
74. PLESNÍK P., 1978. Man’s influence on the timberlinein the West Carpathian Mountains, Czechoslovakia.Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research,vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 495-504.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1550783 -
75. Pociask-Karteczka Z., Baścik M. (eds.), 2006. Zlewnia– właściwości i procesy. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego.
76. Rob M., Tăut I., 2007. Considerations concerning the altitudinal limit of the beech forests from the Gutâi mountains. Bulletin of University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca. Horticulture, vol. 64, no. 1-2, pp. 261-265.
77. Schlagintweit, A., Schlagintweit H., 1854. Neue Untersuchungen über die physikalische Geographie und die Geologie der Alpen. Leipzig.
78. SHANDRA O., WEISBERG P., MARTAZINOVA V., 2013. Influences of climate and land use history on forest and timberline dynamics in the Carpathian Mountains during the twentieth century [in:] J. Kozak, K. Ostapowicz, A. Bytnerowicz, B. Wyżga (eds.), The Carpathians: Integrating nature and society towards sustainability, environmental science and engineering. Berlin-Heidelberg: Springer Verlag, pp. 209-223.
79. Sitko I., Troll M., 2008. Timberline changes in relation to summer farming in the Western Chornohora (Ukrainian Carpathians). Mountain Research and Development, vol. 28, no. 3-4, pp. 263-271.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1659/mrd.0963 -
80. Skroppa T., 2003. EUFORGEN technical guidelines for genetic conservations and use for Norway spruce (Picea abies). Rome: International Plant Genetics Resources Institute.
81. Sokołowski M., 1928. O górnej granicy lasu w Tatrach. Kraków: Zakłady Kórnickie.
82. Storetvedt K.M., 1990. The Tethys Sea and the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt: Mega-elements in a new global tectonic system. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, vol. 62, no. 1-2, pp. 141-184.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9201(90)90198-7 -
83. Środoń A., 1948. Górna granica lasu na Czarnohorze i w Górach Czywczyńskich. Rozprawy Wydziału Matematyczno-Przyrodniczego Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności, vol. 72, no. 7, pp. 513-606.
84. Tachikawa T., Hato M., Kaku M., Iwasaki A., 2011, The characteristics of ASTER GDEM version 2. Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), IEEE International, pp. 3657-3660.
85. Tanase G., 2013. Evoluţia limitei superioare a pădurii în masivul Giumalău în perioada 1855-2006. Revista GEOCONCEPT, 1.
86. TASSER E., WALDE J., TAPPEINER U., TEUTSCH A., NOGGLER W., 2007. Land-use changes and natural reforestation in the Eastern Central Alps. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, vol. 118, no. 1-4, pp. 115-129.
87. Theurillat J.P., Guisan A., 2001. Potential impact of climate change on vegetation in the European Alps: A review. Climatic Change, vol. 50, no. 1-2, pp. 77-109.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1010632015572 -
88. ollner H., 1949. Der Einfluß großer Massenerhebung auf die Lufttemperatur und die Ursachen der Hebung der Vegetationsgrenzen in den inneren Ostalpen. Archiv für Meteorologie, Geophysik und Bioklimatologie. Serie B1, vol. 1, no. 3-4, pp. 347-372.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02242831 -
89. Tranquillini W., 1979. Physiological ecology of the alpine timberline – tree existence at high altitudes with special reference to the European Alps. Ecological Studies, 31, Berlin: Springer.
90. Troll C., 1973a. The upper timberlines in different climatic zones. Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Reserche, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 3-18.
91. Troll C., 1973b. High mountain belts between the polar caps and the equator: Their definition and lower limit. Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. A19-A27.
92. Wardle P., 1974. Alpine timberlines [in:] J.D. Ives, R.G. Barry (eds.), Arctic and alpine environment, London: Methuen, pp. 371-401.
93. Wardle P., 1986. Alpine vegetation of New Zealand: A review [in:] B. Barlow (ed.), Flora and fauna of Australasia: Ages and origins, Melbourne: CSIRO, Australian Systematic Botany Society, pp. 45-61.
94. Wardle P., 1998. Comparison of alpine timberlines in New Zealand and the Southern Andes. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, Miscellaneous Series, 48, pp. 69-90.
95. Weisberg P.J., Shandra O., Becker M.E., 2013. Landscape influences on recent timberline shifts in the Carpathian Mountains: Abiotic influences modulate effects of land-use change. Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research, vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 404-414.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1657/1938-4246-45.3.404 -
96. Wieser G., Tausz M. (eds.), 2007. Trees at their upper limit: Treelife limitation at the alpine timberline. Dordrecht: Springer.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-5074-7 -
97. Witmer U., Filliger P., Kunz S., Küng P., 1986. Erfassung, Bearbeitung und Kartieren von Schneedaten in der Schweiz. Geographica Bernensia G25, Bern: Geographisches Institut der Universität Bern.
98. Yongming T., Hong W., Xingguo Z., Xiaoli G., 2010. Using GeoEye remote sensing image to make 1:5000 remote sensing image of south mountainous area IN JiNan. Urban Geotechnical Investigation & Surveying, vol. 4: 038.
99. Zausková L., Fejes J., Kysucká K., 2011. Zmeny a pustnutie poľnohospodárskej krajiny v k. ú. Podhorie. Banská Bystrica: Univerzita Mateja Bela.
100. Zhao F., Zhang B., Pang Y., Yao Y., 2014. A study of the contribution of mass elevation effect to the altitudinal distribution of timberline in the Northern Hemisphere. Journal of Geographical Sciences, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 226-236.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11442-014-1084-4 -
101. Zientarski J., 1985. Wpływ wzniesienia oraz wielkości masywu górskiego na kształtowanie się górnej granicy lasu w Polsce. Poznań: Akademia Rolnicza [PhD thesis].